COW

A cow is a mature female and a bull an adult male of a bovine family. A heifer is a female cow that hasn’t had a calf yet. Cattle is the name for the whole “cow” family.
There are about 920 different breeds of cows in the world. They were domesticated about 5,000 years ago. Cows came to America with the Pilgrims.
Modern domestic cattle are believed to belong to either the species Bos taurus (like Holstein, Brown Swiss, Jersey and Guemsey), or the species Bos indicus which are humped cattle like the Brahman. Some cattle are a cross between those two species.
The smallest type of cow is a breed called Dexter, which was bred a small size for household living. Cows can live 25 years. You can guess the age of a cow that has horns by counting the number of rings on the horns.
Cows have almost total 360 degree panoramic vision and are able to see colors, except red. They can detect odors up to 5 miles away. Cows can hear lower and higher frequencies better than humans.
Per day, a cows spends 6 hours eating and 8 hours chewing cud. A cow doesn’t bite the grass, but she curls her tongue around it. A cow has no upper front teeth.
The average cow drinks about 30 gallons of water and eats about 95 pounds of feed per day.
A cow stands up and sits down about 14 times a day.
The mean gestation period of a cow is between 279 and 290 days. The bond between a cow and her calf is very strong and continues after the calf is fully grown. In non-commercial herds, some cows will nurse their calves for up to 3 years.
A cow weighs about 1400 pounds. A 1000 pound cow produces an average of 10 tons of manure a year.
Cows are very social animals. They form large herds and will bond to some herd members while avoiding others. They “moo” and use different body positions and facial expressions to communicate with each other.
A Holstein’s spots are like a fingerprint. No two cows have exactly the same pattern of spots.
A cow has one stomach containing four digestive compartments: the rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum. The rumen is the largest compartment and acts as a fermentation chamber. The abomasum is last of the four and is comparable in both structure and function to the human stomach.
Cows have cloven hooves. In galloping through boggy places or in deep mud, cattle can run faster than a horse. Their toes spread, and therefore their wide feet do not sink so deep as do those of the solid-hoofed horse.

Turmeric

Turmeric is known as golden spice of India.
The turmeric plants were cultivated by Harappan civilization earlier in the 3000 B.C.
It is basically a tropical plant of ginger family is the rhizome or underground stem, with a rough, segmented skin.
It looks much like ginger and turns things into a lovely orange-yellow shade.
Turmeric is of Zingiberaceae family, Zingiberaceae – A family of tropical monocotyledonous plants of order Musales.
Turmeric is also known as Curcuma longa or curcumin.
The maximum production of Turmeric (90%) is in India.
Sangli is the largest and most important trading centre for turmeric in Asia also in the world. Sangli is the town of Indian State Maharashtra.
There are approximately 30 varieties have been recognized in the type of Curcuma in which turmeric belongs.
‘Alleppey Finger’, ‘Erode and Salem turmeric’, ‘Rajapore’ and ‘Sangli turmeric’, ‘Nizamabad Bulb’ are some popular varieties of India.
Turmeric is a known antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic agent.
Curcumin is the active ingredient in turmeric and have wide range of therapeutic effects. It has been used for thousands of years as a safe anti-inflammatory in many ailments as part of Indian traditional medicine – Ayurvedic medicine is a more than 3,000 year old comprehensive medicine system. Curcumin is also an antioxidant that helps to stabilize membranes damaged by inflammation.
It is taken in some Asian countries as a dietary supplement, which helps in stomach problems and other ailments.
Turmeric stimulates digestion, supports the liver, and reduces intestinal permeability.
According to recent research results the component curcumin causes degradation of the human protein p35 which is responsible for removing damaged cells that are likely to become tumors. This effect would – in contrary to the research activities to use it as a treatment for cancer –increase the risk of developing tumors.
Several studies indicate that curcumin slows the development and growth of a number of types of cancer including prostate cancer. Turmeric may also slow the rate at which hormone-responsive prostate cancer becomes resistant to hormonal therapy.
A project is funding to extract and isolate tetrahydrocurcuminoids (THC) from turmeric by the Government of Thailand. THC is colorless compounds that might have antioxidant and skin lightening properties and used to treat skin inflammations, making these compounds useful in cosmetics formulations.
Turmeric has wide range of use in canned beverages, ice-cream, yoghurts, yellow cakes, biscuits, sweets, cake icings, baked products, dairy products, popcorn-colour, cereals, sauces, gelatins, cosmetics, medicinal, ayurvedic medicines etc.
It is commonly used in curries, best-known in Indian and Thai cuisine, also used in many other countries. It is an essential ingredient in curry powder and also used in mustard blends and relishes.
It is used in holy ritual and also used to make kunkuma, a red cosmetic powder.
In India, at the time of wedding, turmeric paste is applied over the bride and grooms body mainly face and arms. The turmeric-based paste is used to beautifying and enrich skin complexion.
The curcumin powder dissolved in alcohol is used for water containing products.
It is popular served as a tea in Okinawa, Japan.
Turmeric is popularly used in cosmetic industry for preparing herbal products. It is also used as a fabric dye, a usually soluble substance for staining or coloring in fabrics as well as for preparing natural hair dye.
Turmeric is very low in Cholesterol and Sodium. It is also a good source of Vitamin C and Magnesium, and a very good source of Dietary Fiber, Vitamin B6, Iron, Potassium and Manganese.

Ripon Building

Ripon Building is the seat of the Chennai Corporation (Madras Corporation) in Chennai (Madras), Tamil Nadu. This is a fine example of Indo-Saracenic style of architecture, a combination of three types of architectural styles – Gothic, Ionic and Corinthian.
The Ripon Building is white in colour and is located near the Central station in Chennai. Commissioned in 1913, it was built by Loganatha Mudaliar.
It took 4 years to build at a cost of 750,000. Ripon building was named after Lord Ripon, Governor-General of British India and the Father of local self-government.
Earl of Minto, the then Viceroy and Governor General of India laid the foundation on 12 December 1909.   The Municipal Corporation of Madras, after functioning from several other places, settled at Ripon building in 1913, with P.L. Moore as the President of the Municipal Corporation at the time of the inauguration.
Building Information
The building is rectangular and is 85 meters long and 32 metres wide.
The first of its three floors offers about 2,800 square metres of space.
Its central tower is 43 metres tall and has a clock 2.5 metres in diameter.
The walls were constructed with stock bricks, set and plastered with lime mortar.
The roofs are supported with teak wood joists. The original flooring of the ground floor was Cuddapah Slate. This has now been replaced with marble.
One of the main attractions Yof the building is the Westminster Quarter chiming clock. This was installed by Oakes and Co. in 1913. The clock has a mechanical key system, which is wound every day. There are a total of 4 bells, which were cast by Gillet and Johnston in 1913.

Shangri-La

Shangri-La is a fictional place described in the 1933 novel Lost Horizon by British author James Hilton. Hilton describes Shangri-La as a mystical, harmonious valley, gently guided from a lamasery, enclosed in the western end of the Kunlun Mountains.
Shangri-La has become synonymous with any earthly paradise but particularly a mythical Himalayan utopia — a permanently happy land, isolated from the outside world.
In the novel Lost Horizon, the people who live at Shangri-La are almost immortal, living years beyond the normal lifespan and only very slowly aging in appearance.
The word also evokes the imagery of exoticism of the Orient. In the ancient Tibetan scriptures, existence of seven such places is mentioned as Nghe-Beyul Khimpalung.
Khembalung is one of several beyuls (“hidden lands” similar to Shangri-La) believed to have been created by Padmasambhava in the 8th century as idylic, sacred places of refuge for Buddhists during times of strife (Reinhard 1978).
The use of the term Shangri-La is frequently cited as a modern reference to Shambhala, a mythical kingdom in Tibetan Buddhist tradition, which was sought by Eastern and Western explorers.

ZEBRA

Swahili Name: Punda Milia
Scientific Name: Burchell’s zebra (Equus burchellii); Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi)
Size: 45 to 55 inches at the shoulder (Burchell’s); 50 to 60 inches (Grevy’s)
Weight: Burchell’s: 485 to 550 pounds (Burchell’s); 770 to 990 pounds (Grevy’s)
Lifespan: 40 years in captivity
Habitat: Woodlands to open plains
Diet: Herbivores Gestation: 12 months (Burchell’s); 13 months (Grevy’s)
Predators: Lions, hyenas, hunting dogs, leopards, cheetahs
Zebras, horses and wild asses are all equids, long-lived animals that move quickly for their large size and have teeth built for grinding and cropping grass. Zebras have horselike bodies, but their manes are made of short, erect hair, their tails are tufted at the tip and their coats are striped.
Three species of zebra still occur in Africa, two of which are found in East Africa. The most numerous and widespread species in the east is Burchell’s, also known as the common or plains zebra. The other is Grevy’s zebra, named for Jules Grevy, a president of France in the 1880s who received one from Abyssinia as a gift, and now found mostly in northern Kenya. (The third species, Equus zebra, is the mountain zebra, found in southern and southwestern Africa.)
Physical Characteristics
The long-legged Grevy’s zebra, the biggest of the wild equids, is taller and heavier than the Burchell’s, with a massive head and large ears.
Zebras have shiny coats that dissipate over 70 percent of incoming heat, and some scientists believe the stripes help the animals withstand intense solar radiation. The black and white stripes are a form of camouflage called disruptive coloration that breaks up the outline of the body. Although the pattern is visible during daytime, at dawn or in the evening when their predators are most active, zebras look indistinct and may confuse predators by distorting true distance.
The stripes on Grevy’s zebras are more numerous and narrow than those of the plains zebra and do not extend to the belly. In all zebra species, the stripes on the forequarters form a triangular pattern; Grevy’s have a similar pattern on the hindquarters, while others have a slanted or horizontal pattern.
Habitat
Burchell’s zebras inhabit savannas, from treeless grasslands to open woodlands; they sometimes occur in tens of thousands in migratory herds on the Serengeti plains. Grevy’s zebras are now mainly restricted to parts of northern Kenya. Although they are adapted to semi-arid conditions and require less water than other zebra species, these zebras compete with domestic livestock for water and have suffered heavy poaching for their meat and skins.
Behavior
Family groups are stable members maintaining strong bonds over many years. Mutual grooming, where zebras stand together and nibble the hair on each other’s neck and back, helps develop and preserve these bonds. Family members look out for one another if one becomes separated from the rest, the others search for it. The group adjusts its traveling pace to accommodate the old and the weak.
The females within a family observe a strict hierarchical system. A dominant mare always leads the group, while others follow her in single file, each with their foals directly behind them. The lowest- ranking mare is the last in line. Although the stallion is the dominant member of the family, he operates outside the system and has no special place in the line.
Diet
Zebras are avid grazers. Both Burchell’s and Grevy’s zebras are in constant search of green pastures. In the dry season, they can live on coarse, dry grass only if they are within a short distance (usually no farther than 20 miles away) of water holes.
Caring for the Young
When a foal is born the mother keeps all other zebras (even the members of her family) away from it for 2 or 3 days, until it learns to recognize her by sight, voice and smell.
While all foals have a close association with their mothers, the male foals are also close to their fathers. They leave their group on their own accord between the ages of 1 and 4 years to join an all-male bachelor group until they are strong enough to head a family.
Predators
Zebras are important prey for lions and hyenas, and to a lesser extent for hunting dogs, leopards and cheetahs. When a family group is attacked, the members form a semicircle, face the predator and watch it, ready to bite or strike should the attack continue. If one of the family is injured the rest will often encircle it to protect it from further attack.

Garlic

Garlic is believed to ward off heart disease, cancer, colds, and flu. The consumption of garlic lowers blood cholesterol levels. and reduces the buildup of plaque in the arteries.
It was even once used to treat acne, warts, and toothaches.
The psychological term for fear of garlic is alliumphobia.
The origin of National Garlic Day is unknown and it is not recorded in congressional or presidential proclamations.
Garlic is said to fight off evil spirits and keep vampires away.
If your garlic has sprouted, it is still usable although it has lost some of its flavor and health benefits.
The smell of garlic can be removed by running your hands under cold water while rubbing a stainless steel object.
Garlic is a member of the onion family which also includes leeks and shallots.
Its pungent flavor is due to a chemical reaction that occurs when the garlic cells are broken. The flavor is most intense just after mincing.
The majority of garlic (90%) grown in the United States comes from California.
If your rose garden is being attacked by aphids, an excellent home remedy to get rid of them is to spritz the leaves and blooms with a mixture of crushed garlic and water.
When picking out garlic at the grocery store, choose firm, tight, heavy dry bulbs.
Garlic has been used to infuse vodka and as an ingredient to make cocktails.

HITLER



Hitler never allows anyone to see him while he is naked or bathing. He refuses to use cologne or scents of any sort on his body
No matter how warm he feels, Hitler will never take off his coat in public
In 1923, Nazi press secretary Dr. Sedgwick tried to convince Hitler to get rid of his trademark mustache or grow it normally. Hitler answered: “Do not worry about my mustache. If it is not the fashion now, it will be later because I wear it!”
While dining with the others, Hitler will allow the conversation to linger on general topics, but after a couple of hours he will inevitably begin one of his many monologues.
These speeches are flawless from start to finish because he rehearses them any time he gets a moment.   His favorite topics include: “When I was a soldier,” “When I was in Vienna,” “When I was in prison,” and “When I was the leader in the early days of the party.”
If Hitler begins speaking about Wagner and the opera, no one dares interrupt him. He will often sermonize on this topic until his audience falls asleep.
Hitler has no interest in sports or games of any kind and never exercised, except for an occasional walk.   He paces frequently inside rooms, always to the same tune that he whistles to himself and always diagonally across the room, from corner to corner.
Hitler’s handwriting is impeccable. When famous psychologist Carl Jung saw Hitler’s handwriting in 1937, he remarked: “Behind this handwriting I recognize the typical characteristics of a man with essentially feminine instinct.”
Hitler loves the circus. He takes real pleasure in the idea that underpaid performers are risking their lives to please him.
He went to the circus on several occasions in 1933 and sent extremely expensive chocolates and flowers to the female performers. Hitler even remembered their names and would worry about them and their families in the event of an accident.
 He isn’t interested in wild animal acts, unless there is a woman in danger   Nearly every night Hitler will see a movie in his private theatre, mainly foreign films that are banned to the German public.
He loves comedies and will often laugh merrily at Jewish comedians. Hitler even liked a few Jewish singers, but after hearing them he would remark that it was too bad he or she wasn’t Aryan.
Hitler staff secretly made films for him of torture and execution of political prisoners, which he very much enjoyed viewing.
His executive assistants also secured pornographic pictures and movies for him. He loves newsreels – especially when he is in them.
He adores gypsy music, Wagner’s operas, and especially American college football marches and alma maters.
To excite the masses, he also uses American College football-style music during his speeches. His rallying cry – “Sieg Heil!” – was even modeled after the cheering techniques used by American football cheerleaders.

Kidneys

Kidneys are vital organs, performing some of the most important functions in our body. They are sophisticated processing machines that keep our blood clean and chemically balanced.   It goes without saying that the more you know about your body and your health, the more control you have over your life.
As a Nephrologist, specializing in Chronic Kidney Disease and Hypertension, I decided to share some interesting information with my readers, pertaining to Kidney disease and Kidney health. I hope you will find the facts outlined below interesting and useful.
Our Kidneys have a higher blood flow than our brain, liver or heart.
The Kidneys absorb and distribute 99.9% of the blood volume. Only 0.1% of the blood filtered turns into urine.
Each Kidney is about 5 inches long (13 centimeters) and weighs approximately 4 to 6 ounces (120-140 grams).
The Kidneys filter almost 200 quarts of blood every day.
1 in 9 adults in America, or at least 26 million Americans, have Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) and millions more are at increased risk. According to The American Society of Nephrology, the number of people diagnosed with Kidney disease has doubled for the last decade. I would strongly recommend blood and urine tests to detect early signs of the disorder.
Risk factors for CKD include: diabetes, hypertension, high cholesterol, obesity, advanced age, family history of CKD, and tobacco use.
Each kidney has about a million tiny nephrons. A nephron is the basic functional unit of the kidney. It has a group of tiny blood vessels called a glomerulus, the small structure responsible for filtering and cleaning blood as it flows through the kidney. Most kidney diseases attack the nephrons, causing them to lose filtering capacity. Interestingly, Kidney diseases destroy the nephrons slowly and silently. The damage will become apparent only years or even decades later.
The most frequent causes of Kidney disease are Diabetes and High blood pressure. Other causes include, Glomerulonephritis (inflammation of the glomerulus) and Polycystic Kidney Disease (an inherited disease, causing large cysts to form in the kidney). What most people don’t realize is that taking over-the-counter pain-relieving medicines, can also result in Kidney disorder. Please keep in mind that these medicines can be toxic to your Kidneys and may even provoke some serious damage.
Heart disease is very common among people with Chronic Kidney Disease. CKD patients are more likely than the general population to develop heart condition. That’s why following all the necessary steps to prevent heart problems is absolutely crucial. What they should do is eat healthy foods, exercise on a regular basis and kick a smoking habit (in case they smoke). CKD patients should cut down on foods that contain saturated fat, such as eggs, milk, cheese and fried foods. Healthy foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids should become a part of their dietary regime. I cannot stress enough the importance of salmon, albacore tuna, sardines, walnuts or flaxseed oil in your diet.
Dialysis and Kidney Transplantation can extend the lives of people with Kidney failure. Fortunately, there are ways to prevent Kidney disease. Kidney-related disorders usually occur gradually over time. That’s why it is always better to identify potential disorder early on. Time is of the essence – early detection can slow the progression of CDK and protect your health.
Only one donated Kidney is needed to replace two failed Kidneys. The life expectancy of someone who donates a kidney is the same as the general population. There is no increased risk of kidney disease if a well-screened person donates a kidney to someone who is in need of a transplant.

Trigonometry

Trigonometry (from Greek trigōnon “triangle” + metron “measure”) is a branch of mathematics that studies triangles and the relationships between their sides and the angles between these sides.
Trigonometry defines the trigonometric functions, which describe those relationships and have applicability to cyclical phenomena, such as waves.
The field evolved during the third century BC as a branch of geometry used extensively for astronomical studies. It is also the foundation of the practical art of surveying.   Trigonometry basics are often taught in school either as a separate course or as part of a precalculus course.
The trigonometric functions are pervasive in parts of pure mathematics and applied mathematics such as Fourier analysis and the wave equation, which are in turn essential to many branches of science and technology.
Spherical trigonometry studies triangles on spheres, surfaces of constant positive curvature, in elliptic geometry. It is fundamental to astronomy and navigation. Trigonometry on surfaces of negative curvature is part of Hyperbolic geometry.
History
Sumerian astronomers introduced angle measure, using a division of circles into 360 degrees. They and their successors the Babylonians studied the ratios of the sides of similar triangles and discovered some properties of these ratios, but did not turn that into a systematic method for finding sides and angles of triangles.
The ancient Nubians used a similar methodology. The ancient Greeks transformed trigonometry into an ordered science.   Classical Greek mathematicians (such as Euclid and Archimedes) studied the properties of chords and inscribed angles in circles, and proved theorems that are equivalent to modern trigonometric formulae, although they presented them geometrically rather than algebraically. Claudius Ptolemy expanded upon Hipparchus’ Chords in a Circle in his Almagest.
The modern sine function was first defined in the Surya Siddhanta, and its properties were further documented by the 5th century Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata.
These Greek and Indian works were translated and expanded by medieval Islamic mathematicians. By the 10th century, Islamic mathematicians were using all six trigonometric functions, had tabulated their values, and were applying them to problems in spherical geometry.
At about the same time, Chinese mathematicians developed trigonometry independently, although it was not a major field of study for them. Knowledge of trigonometric functions and methods reached Europe via Latin translations of the works of Persian and Arabic astronomers such as Al Battani and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi.
One of the earliest works on trigonometry by a European mathematician is De Triangulis by the 15th century German mathematician Regiomontanus. Trigonometry was still so little known in 16th century Europe that Nicolaus Copernicus devoted two chapters of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium to explaining its basic concepts.

SALT

1. Right up to the 20th century, pound bars of salt (called amoleh) were the basic currency in Abyssinia (now called Ethiopia).
2. The amazing Salar de Uyuni (the world’s largest salt flat at 4,000 square miles) in Bolivia becomes mirrorlike when a thin layer of water lies on top. This reflectivity makes it a very useful tool in calibration scientific equipment from outer space. This amazing salt flat also contains half of the world’s supply of lithium. The salt flat is pictured above.
3. Salt is so essential to the body that if you drink too much water it can flush it out of your system and cause fatal Hyponatremia. This is what killed Jennifer Strange who entered a “Hold your wee for a wii” competition.
4. Consumption of too much salt can be deadly – you need to take about 1 gram of salt per kilogram of weight to die and this was used as a method of ritual suicide in China – especially amongst the nobility as salt was so expensive.
5. Good quality sea salt contains many essential minerals for the body. The best type of sea salt should be slightly wet from the sea it was taken from.

6. In the Middle Ages, salt as so expensive it was sometimes referred to as “white gold”. The medieval pavement of one of the transportation routes for Salt still exists in Germany where it links the inland city of Lüneburg to the German Baltic coast.
7. Black Salt is made in India by mixing salt water with harad seeds. The mixture is left to evaporate leaving behind black lumps of salt. When the salt is ground, the resulting powder is pink (as can be seen in the image above).
8. In Guerande, France, salt is still gathered in the same way as it was by the ancient celts, using baskets through which the sea water is strained. This makes the salt very expensive and highly sought after, especially the finest quality version called Fleur de Sel (flower of salt). This salt is sprinkled on food prior to serving – it is never used in cooking.
9. There is a very common misconception that Roman soldiers were paid in salt (hence the word Salary), but in fact they were paid in normal money. The connection with salt is possibly through the fact that the soldiers protected the salt roads leading to Rome (Via Salarium). Roman Soldiers were private employees – rather than state employees.
10. Before Biblical Judaism ceased to exist, salt was mixed with animal sacrifices. This originated from Moses in Leviticus 2:13 which states: “Whatsoever sacrifice thou offerest, thou shalt season it with salt, neither shalt thou take away the salt of the covenant of thy God from thy sacrifice. In all thy oblations thou shalt offer salt.” The salt was a symbol of wisdom and discretion.
11. After aviation fuel is purified, salt is mixed with it to remove all traces of water before it can be used.
12. Sodium Chloride (salt – pictured above) is formed when the unstable metal sodium reacts with chlorine gas. It is the only family of rocks regularly eaten by humans.
13. In the early 1800s salt was 4 times as expensive as beef on the frontier – it was essential in keeping people and livestock alive.
14. Only 6% of the salt used in the U.S. is used in food; another 17% is used for de-icing streets and highways in the winter months.
15. In the late 17th century, salt was the leading cargo carried from the Caribbean to North America (most tonnage). Salt Cod was the leading cargo carried from North America to the Caribbean. It was used to feed slaves on sugar plantations.

Hepatitis B

Hepatitis B is an infectious inflammatory illness of the liver caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) that affects hominoidea, including humans.
Originally known as “serum hepatitis”, the disease has caused epidemics in parts of Asia and Africa, and it is endemic inChina.
About a third of the world population has been infected at one point in their lives,[3] including 350 million who are chronic carriers.
The virus is transmitted by exposure to infectious blood or body fluids such as semen and vaginal fluids, while viral DNA has been detected in the saliva, tears, and urine of chronic carriers.
Perinatal infection is a major route of infection in endemic (mainly developing) countries. Other risk factors for developing HBV infection include working in a healthcare setting, transfusions, and dialysis, acupuncture, tattooing, extended overseas travel and residence in an institution.
However, Hepatitis B viruses cannot be spread by holding hands, sharing eating utensils or drinking glasses, kissing, hugging, coughing, sneezing, or breastfeeding.
The acute illness causes liver inflammation, vomiting, jaundice and, rarely, death. Chronic hepatitis B may eventually cause cirrhosis and liver cancer—a disease with poor response to all but a few current therapies. The infection is preventable by vaccination.
Hepatitis B virus is an hepadnavirus—hepa from hepatotropic (attracted to the liver) and dna because it is a DNA virus—and it has a circular genome of partially double-stranded DNA.
The viruses replicate through an RNA intermediate form by reverse transcription, which practice relates them to retroviruses.
Although replication takes place in the liver, the virus spreads to the blood where viral proteins and antibodies against them are found in infected people.

Conquests of Alexander in India

In 327 BCE Alexander the Great began his foray into Punjab. King Ambhi, ruler of Taxila, surrendered the city to Alexander. Many people had fled to a high fortress/rock called Aornos.
Aornos was taken by Alexander by storm after a successful siege. Alexander fought an epic battle against the Indian monarch Porus in the Battle of Hydaspes (326). After victory, Alexander made an alliance with Porus and appointed him as satrap of his own kingdom. Alexander continued on to conquer all the headwaters of the Indus River.
East of Porus’ kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the powerful kingdom of Magadha, under the Nanda Dynasty.
According to Plutarch, at the time of Alexander’s Battle of the Hydaspes River, the size of the Magadha’s army further east numbered 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots, and 6,000 war elephants, which was discouraging for Alexander’s men and stayed their further progress into India:
“ As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was •thirty-two furlongs, its depth •a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at‑arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand fighting elephants. And there was no boasting in these reports. For Androcottus, who reigned there not long afterwards, made a present to Seleucus of five hundred elephants, and with an army of six hundred thousand men overran and subdued all India. ”
–Plutarch, Parallel Lives, “Life of Alexander”
Exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing another giant Indian army at the Ganges River, his army mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas), refusing to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer Coenus, was convinced that it was better to return.
Alexander was forced to turn south, conquering his way down the Indus to the Indian Ocean. He sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with his general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest of his forces back to Persia by the southern route through the Gedrosia (modern Makran in southern Pakistan).
Alexander left behind Greek forces which established themselves in the city of Taxila, now in Pakistan. Several generals, such as Eudemus and Peithon governed the newly established province until around 316 BCE. One of them, Sophytes (305–294 BCE), was an independent Greek prince in the Punjab.

Jainism

Jainism, is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul towards divine consciousness and liberation.
Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state of supreme being is called a jina (“conqueror” or “victor”).
The ultimate status of these perfect souls is called siddha. Ancient texts also refer to Jainism as shramana dharma (self-reliant) or the “path of the niganthas” (those without attachments or aversions).
Jain doctrine teaches that Jainism has always existed and will always exist, although historians date the foundation of the organized or present form of Jainism to sometime between the 9th and the 6th century BC.
Like most ancient Indian religions, Jainism may have its roots in the Indus Valley Civilization, reflecting native spirituality prior to the Indo-Aryan migration into India.
Other scholars suggested the shramana traditions were separate and contemporaneous with Indo-Aryan religious practices of the historical Vedic religion.
Contemporary Jainism is a small but influential religious minority with as many as 4.2 million followers in India, and successful growing immigrant communities in North America, Western Europe, the Far East, Australia and elsewhere.
Jains have significantly influenced and contributed to ethical, political and economic spheres in India. Jains have an ancient tradition of scholarship and have the highest degree of literacy for a religious community in India. Jain libraries are the oldest in the country.

Wat Rong Khun

Wat Rong Khun is a contemporary unconventional Buddhist and Hindu temple in Chiang Rai, Thailand. It was designed by Chalermchai Kositpipat. Construction began in 1997,finished in 2008.
Style and construction   Wat Rong Khun is different from any other temple in Thailand, as its ubosot is designed in white color with some use of white glass.
The white color stands for Lord Buddha’s purity; the white glass stands for Lord Buddha’s wisdom that “shines brightly all over the Earth and the Universe.”
The bridge leading to the temple represents the crossing over from the cycle of rebirth to the Abode of Buddha.
The small semicircle before the bridge stands for the human world. The big circle with fangs is the mouth of Rahu, meaning impurities in the mind, a representation of hell or suffering.
All the paintings inside the ubosot (assembly hall) have golden tones. The four walls, ceiling and floor contain paintings showing an escape from the defilements of temptation to reach a supramundane state.
On the roof, there are four kinds of animals representing earth, water, wind and fire. The elephant stands for the earth; the naga stands for water; the swan’s wings represent wind; and the lion’s mane represents fire.
Visitors will find it rather bizarre to find modern images throughout this temple. Images of the Predator from the Hollywood film, Spiderman, Batman, Keanu Reeves character in the Matrix, rocket ships, etc.
The sea of hands rising up towards the bridge to the temple, some holding skulls are very striking.   In 1997, Chalermchai Kositpipat volunteered his service to carry out the construction of the ubosot at his own expense as an offering to Lord Buddha, but he later altered the plan as he saw fit in such a way that Wat Rong Khun developed into a prominent site attracting both Thai and foreign visitors.
Nowadays, Wat Rong Khun is still being constructed. When completed, the construction project of Wat Rong Khun will consist of nine buildings: the ubosot, the hall containing Lord Buddha’s relics, the hall containing Buddha images, the preaching hall, the contemplation hall, the monk’s cell, the door façade of the Buddhavasa, the art gallery, and the toilets.

Bangles

Bangles are traditional ornaments worn mostly by South Asian women in India and Bangladesh, especially Hindus. It is tradition that the bride will try to wear as many small glass bangles as possible at her wedding and the honeymoon will end when the last bangle breaks.
Toddler to older woman could wear bangles based on the type of bangles. Bangles made of gold or silver are preferred for toddlers.   Some men wear a single bangle on the arm or wrist called as kada or kara. In Sikhism, The father of a Sikh bride will give the groom a gold ring, a kara (steel or iron bangle), and a mohra.
Chooda is a kind of bangle that is worn by Punjabi women on her wedding day. It is a set of white and red bangles with stone work. According to tradition, a woman is not supposed to buy the bangles she will wear.
Moradabad, India is the world’s largest producer of bangles.   A standard bangle is used as an adornment. A new special type of bangle doubles as a clip for hanging items such as a handbag.
History
Bangles—made from sea shell, copper, bronze, gold, agate, chalcedony etc.—have been excavated from multiple archaeological sites throughout India.
A figurine of a dancing girl—wearing bangles on her left arm— has been excavated from Mohenjo-daro (2600 BC).   Other early examples of bangles in India include copper samples from the excavations at Mahurjhari—soon followed by the decorated bangles belonging to the Mauryan empire (322–185 BCE), and the gold bangle samples from the historic site of Taxila (6th century BCE).
Decorated shell bangles have also been excavated from multiple Mauryan sites. Other features included copper rivets and gold-leaf inlay in some cases.
Types of bangles
There are two basic types of bangles: a solid cylinder type; and a split, cylindrical spring opening/closing type. Primary distinguishing factor for these is the material that is used to make the bangles. This may vary anything from glass to jade to metal to lac and even rubber or plastic.
One factor that adds to the price of the bangles is the artifacts or the work done further on the metal. This includes embroidery or small glass pieces or paintings or even small hangings that are attached to the bangles.
The rareness of a color and its unique value also increase the value. Bangles made from lac are one of the oldest ones and among the brittle category too. Lac is clay like material which is molded in hot kilns-like places to make these bangles.
Among the recent entrants are the rubber bangles that are worn more like a wrist band by youngsters while the plastic ones are there to add the trendy look.
 Normally, a bangle worn by people around the world is simply an inflexible piece of jewelry worn around the wrist. However, in many cultures, especially in the South Asia and in Arabian Peninsula, bangles have evolved into various types in which different ones are used at different occasions.

Beauty Parlour

A beauty salon or beauty parlor (International spelling: beauty parlour) (or sometimes beauty shop) is an establishment dealing with cosmetic treatments for men and women. Other variations of this type of business include hair salons and spas.
There is a distinction between a beauty salon and a hair salon and although many small businesses do offer both sets of treatments; beauty salons provide more generalized services related to skin health, facial aesthetic, foot care, aromatherapy, — even meditation, oxygen therapy, mud baths, and innumerable other services.
Beauty treatments
Massage for the body is a popular beauty treatment, with various techniques offering benefits to the skin (including the application of beauty products) and for increasing mental well-being and relaxation.
Facials refers to a treatment for the face.
Manicure refers to a treatment for the hands, incorporating the fingernails and cuticles and often involving the application of nail polish.
Pedicure refers to a treatment for the feet, incorporating the toenails and the softening or removal of calluses.   Manicures and pedicures take place at nail salons.
Beauty salons offer treatments such as waxing and threading for hair removal.

Fish

Fish have been on the earth for more than 450 million years.
Fish were well established long before dinosaurs roamed the earth.
There are over 25,000 identified species of fish on the earth.
It is estimated that there may still be over 15,000 fish species that have not yet been identified.
There are more species of fish than all the species of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals combined.
40% of all fish species inhabit fresh water, yet less than .01% of the earth’s water is fresh water.
The spotted climbing perch is able to absorb oxygen from the air and will crawl overland using its strong pectoral fins.
Some fish like sharks don’t posses an air bladder to help keep them afloat and must either swim continually or rest on the bottom.
Some fish make sounds by grating their teeth and others like some catfish make sounds from their air filled swim bladder.
Some species of fish can fly (glide) others can skip along the surface and others can even climb rock.
Fish have a specialized sense organ called the lateral line which works much like radar and helps them navigate in dark or murky water.
The largest fish is the great whale shark which can reach fifty feet in length.
The smallest fish is the Philippine goby that is less than 1/3 of an inch when fully grown.
Some species of fish have skeletons made only of cartilage.
Fish have excellent senses of sight, touch, taste and many possess a good sense of smell and ‘hearing’.
Fish feel pain and suffer stress just like mammals and birds.

Human Brain

There are no pain receptors in the brain, so the brain can feel no pain.
The human brain is the fattest organ in the body and may consists of at least 60% fat.
Neurons develop at the rate of 250,000 neurons per minute during early pregnancy.
Humans continue to make new neurons throughout life in response to mental activity.
Alcohol interferes with brain processes by weakening connections between neurons.
Reading aloud and talking often to a young child promotes brain development.
Information travels at different speeds within different types of neurons. Not all neurons are the same.
There are a few different types within the body and transmission along these different kinds can be as slow as 0.5 meters/sec or as fast as 120 meters/sec.
The capacity for such emotions as joy, happiness, fear, and shyness are already developed at birth.
The specific type of nurturing a child receives shapes how these emotions are developed.
The left side of your brain (left hemisphere) controls the right side of your body; and, the right side of your brain (right hemisphere) controls the left side of your body.
Children who learn two languages before the age of five alters the brain structure and adults have a much denser gray matter.
Information can be processed as slowly as 0.5 meters/sec or as fast as 120 meters/sec (about 268 miles/hr).
While awake, your brain generates between 10 and 23 watts of power–or enough energy to power a light bulb.
The old adage of humans only using 10% of their brain is not true. Every part of the brain has a known function.
A study of one million students in New York showed that students who ate lunches that did not include artificial flavors, preservatives, and dyes did 14% better on IQ tests than students who ate lunches with these additives.
For years, scientists believed that tinnitus was due to a function within the mechanics of the ear, but newer evidence shows that it is actually a function of the brain.
Every time you recall a memory or have a new thought, you are creating a new connection in your brain.
Memories triggered by scent have a stronger emotional connection, therefore appear more intense than other memory triggers.
Each time we blink, our brain kicks in and keeps things illuminated so the whole world doesn’t go dark each time we blink (about 20,000 times a day).
Laughing at a joke is no simple task as it requires activity in five different areas of the brain.
The average number of thoughts that humans are believed to experience each day is 70,000.

Basketball

In the very beginning the color of the basketball was brown, but later it was changed into a brighter color; that is orange.
The first basketball game took place in 1982, where the court was half the size of today’s courts, and only one point was scored during the match.
The NBA (National Basketball Association) was founded in 1949, after the combination of the NBL (National Basketball League) and the BAA (Basketball Associate of America).
Basketball was first played by a soccer ball untill it was changed in 1929.
Michael Jordan is considered one of the best basketball players around the world. The record score of 5,987 made him a legend in the world of basketball.
The reason why a backboard was added is because the audience in the balcony used to interfere in the game by handling the ball.
In 1967, slam dunks were considered illegal; nine years later it was legalized again.
The first hoop was like a peach with a bottom and every time a team scores, the referee would climb a ladder to get the ball.
Women’s basketball began in 1892, and some rules were modified to fit women.
The game was made an official Olympic game in berlin Germany, 1936.

Atheism

Atheism is, in a broad sense, the rejection of belief in the existence of deities. In a narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities.
Most inclusively, atheism is simply the absence of belief that any deities exist. Atheism is contrasted with theism, which in its most general form is the belief that at least one deity exists.
The term atheism originated from the Greek ἄθεος (atheos), meaning “without god“, used as a pejorative term applied to those thought to reject the gods worshipped by the larger society.
With the spread of freethought, skeptical inquiry, and subsequent increase in criticism of religion, application of the term narrowed in scope.
The first individuals to identify themselves using the word “atheist” lived in the 18th century.   Atheists tend to be skeptical of supernatural claims, citing a lack of empirical evidence for deities. Rationales for not believing in any deity include the problem of evil, the argument from inconsistent revelations, and the argument from nonbelief.
Other arguments for atheism range from the philosophical to the social to the historical. Although some atheists have adopted secular philosophies, there is no one ideology or set of behaviors to which all atheists adhere.
Many atheists hold that atheism is a more parsimonious worldview than theism, and therefore the burden of proof lies not on the atheist to disprove the existence of God, but on the theist to provide a rationale for theism.
Atheism is accepted within some religious and spiritual belief systems, including Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Neopagan movements such as Wicca, and nontheistic religions.
Jainism and some forms of Buddhism do not advocate belief in gods, whereas Hinduism holds atheism to be valid, but difficult to follow spiritually.
Since conceptions of atheism vary, determining how many atheists exist in the world today is difficult. According to one estimate, about 2.3% of the world’s population are atheists, while a further 11.9% are nonreligious.
According to another, rates of self-reported atheism are among the highest in Western nations, again to varying degrees: United States (4%), Italy (7%), Spain (11%), Great Britain (17%), Germany (20%), and France (32%).
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